The major consequence of the Norman conquest of the British Isles in 1066 was not only social change but also a transformation of the socio-economic structure—specifically, the introduction of Norman land tenure systems that treated land as private property. This displaced the Saxon tradition of common land and contributed to the creation of an underclass (Carson, 2004).
During British colonization of the New World, expansion became both an economic opportunity and a racial project. Race emerged as a rationalization for hierarchy, and cultural perceptions of superiority justified exploitation. The use of enslaved people in the British colonies was defined explicitly by race. At the same time, Europe’s deeply embedded social and cultural antisemitism, along with the secularization of society, contributed to ideological frameworks that later supported the pseudo-science of eugenics in the British colonies. After the defeat of the Confederate States in the American Civil War, the South required an ideology to reconcile its loss, laying foundations for modern white supremacist ideology.
Following the Civil War, white supremacist movements temporarily retreated from open political dominance. However, the 1920s saw the revival of the Ku Klux Klan amid rapid scientific and technological change. In a transforming world, segments of white America sought ideological reassurance, and white supremacism functioned as a comfort ideology.
In the twentieth century, political figures such as Andrew Jackson and Woodrow Wilson have been cited by historians as reflecting or legitimizing racial hierarchies in American political culture. After World War II and the global exposure of the genocidal horrors perpetrated by Nazi Germany, overt racial supremacism became less publicly acceptable. However, Richard Nixon’s “Southern Strategy” politically reactivated racial resentment in coded form. Ronald Reagan later reframed aspects of racial politics within economic discourse, particularly through arguments emphasizing limited government and market individualism.
The rise of identity politics intensified after the election of Barack Obama, the first African American president of the United States. Some analysts argue that this moment triggered political backlash. Economic debates also intensified, particularly concerning Republican economic policies since the Nixon era and the long-term effects of supply-side (“trickle-down”) economics. Supporters of Democratic administrations point to the fiscal record of Bill Clinton, whose presidency ended with a budget surplus, in contrast to the economic crisis during George W. Bush’s administration.
The election of Donald Trump the open White Supremacist, marked a period of renewed polarization. Critics argue that his rhetoric emboldened white supremacist groups and contributed to institutional instability. His successor, Joe Biden, positioned himself as a moderate aiming to restore economic stability and international alliances.
Globally, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine reshaped international politics, with China offering strategic support to Russia. Few expected Ukraine to sustain prolonged resistance. In the Middle East, political instability in Israel, including leadership controversies surrounding Benjamin Netanyahu, contributed to escalating conflict in October 2023.
Today, the United States faces internal political strain. Critics argue that unified Republican control of federal branches has shifted power toward the executive, raising concerns about the balance of powers and the expanding authority of the presidency.
